Complete national overview - Netherlands

Legal system

The Dutch educational system is governed by different acts. Each type of education has own legislation:

• Primary education: Primary Education Act (WPO)
• Special education: Expertise Centres Act (WEC)
• Secondary education: Secondary Education Act (WVO)
• Adult and Vocational Education : Adult and Vocational Education Act (WEB)
• Higher Education: Higher Education and Research Act (WHO)

Freedom of education

One of the key features of the Dutch education system, guaranteed under article 23 of the Constitution, is freedom of education. This refers to the freedom to found schools (freedom of establishment), to organise the teaching in schools (freedom of organisation of teaching) and to determine the principles on which they are based (freedom of conviction). People have the right to found schools and to provide teaching based on religious, ideological or educational beliefs. As a result there are both publicly run and privately run schools in the Netherlands.

Publicly run schools are open to all children regardless of religion or outlook and provide education on behalf of the state. Public schools are subject to public law. They are governed by the municipal council or by a public legal entity or foundation set up by the council. Some publicly run schools base their teaching on specific educational ideas, such as the Montessori, Jenaplan or Dalton method.

Privately run schools are subject to private law and are state-funded although not set up by the state. These schools are governed by the board of the association or foundation that set them up. These so-called denominational schools base their teaching on religious or ideological beliefs. They include Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim, Hindustani and anthroposophic schools. Some private schools base their teaching on specific educational ideas, such as the Montessori, Jenaplan or Dalton method. The denominational schools can refuse to admit pupils whose parents do not subscribe to the belief or ideology on which the school’s teaching is based.

The freedom to organise teaching means that private schools are free to determine what is taught and how. This freedom is however limited by the qualitative standards set by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science in educational legislation. These standards, which apply to both public and private education, prescribe the subjects to be studied, the attainment targets or examination syllabuses and the content of national examinations, the number of instructional hours per year, the qualifications which teachers are required to have, the right for parents and pupils to have a say in school matters, planning and reporting obligations, and so on.

The Constitution places public and private schools on an equal financial footing. This means that government expenditure on public education must be matched by spending on private education. The conditions which private schools must satisfy in order to qualify for funding are laid down by law.

Compulsory Education Act

The obligation to attend school is laid down in the Compulsory Education Act 1969. Every child must attend school full time from the first school day of the month following its fifth birthday; in fact, however, nearly all children attend school from the age of four. Children must attend school full time for 12 full school years and, in any event, until the end of the school year in which they turn 16. Those who have a practical training contract in a particular sector of employment attend classes one day a week and work the rest of the week. Since august 2007, the obligation to continue education in order to obtain a basic qualification is applicable to youngsters under the age of 18, who have finished compulsory education but have not yet obtained a basic qualification certificate. They have to achieve at least a certificate at havo, vwo or mbo 2 level.

The Compulsory Education Act is implemented by the municipal authorities. The municipal executive checks that children below school-leaving age who are registered as resident in the area are enrolled as pupils at an educational establishment. The municipal authorities ensure compliance with the Act in both public and private schools through the school attendance officer appointed for this purpose. The Act requires each municipality to have one sworn attendance officer with specific responsibility for this matter, although in smaller local authorities such officials frequently carry out other duties in addition.

Since 1995 the municipal authorities have been responsible for registering early school leavers under the age of 23 and coordinating regional policy on this matter. In 2001 the Regional Registration and Coordination (Early School Leavers) Bill was adopted by parliament. This bill contains amendments to educational legislation designed to prevent and tackle early school leaving in ordinary and special secondary schools, secondary vocational education and adult general secondary education. The main aim is for all young people to leave school with a basic qualification.

Actual developments

Pre-Primary Education

The 1999 policy document on childcare contains an overview of current policy which is geared to achieving a substantial increase in the number of childcare places available, especially for 4 to 12-year-olds. In 2001 the government approved the Basic Childcare Provision Bill (WBK) and submitted it to the Council of State. This Act entered into force in 2004. The Act regulates the structure of the childcare sector, the division of responsibilities, quality, supervision and funding (including parental contributions). The aim is to provide adequate facilities throughout the Netherlands, with appropriate educational standards. Parents receive an income-related government subsidy, thus giving them more choice and making childcare provision more market-led. It also became easier for new providers of childcare to enter the market. A new national system of requirements to be met by providers and checks on municipal supervision will improve quality control. The new national standards will create greater clarity; it will moreover become easier to obtain planning permission and operating licences. Importantly, responsibility for childcare is to be shared by parents, employers and government, who will also share its financing.
As a result of the Act, the distinction between subsidised, employer-funded and privately-funded childcare has  disappeared. A uniform childcare funding system has been introduced (fixed employer's contribution, income-related government subsidy, remainder paid by parents). In the 1999-2002 policy document on welfare, entitled 'Towards social quality', childcare policy forms an integral part of policy on participation and integration and is therefore to be coordinated with the further development of local youth and education policy. Childcare as a policy area is now transferred to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. Before it fell under the responsibility of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment (SZW).

Primary Education

The Primary Education Act (WPO) came into force on 1 August 1998, replacing the Primary Education Act 1981 and the Special Education Interim Act, both of which had been in force since 1985. The purpose of the new Act was to enhance the integration of and cooperation between mainstream primary schools and certain types of special school. It governs both mainstream schools and special schools for children with learning and behavioural difficulties (lom), children with learning difficulties (mlk) and preschool children with developmental difficulties (IOBK). lom and mlk schools are now officially known as special schools for primary education. IOBK schools are integrated in cluster 4 schools. The term primary encompasses both ordinary mainstream schools and schools for special primary education.

Secondary education

In 1998 vbo and mavo were combined into vmbo. At the same time, the learning support departments (lwoo) were given a more definite shape. In 1998 ivbo was incorporated into the learning support departments. In addition, practical training programmes (pro) were initiated. With the conversion of practical training programmes and the learning support departments, special secondary education has been incorporated into mainstream secondary education. On 28 May 1998, an Act was implemented which required all svo/lom (for children with learning and behavioural difficulties) and svo/mlk (for children with moderate learning difficulties) schools either to merge with a mainstream secondary school, or to convert to a practical training institution (pro) or a special education centre (opdc).

Special education

In 1998 the law on the Expertise Centres was introduced. Regional expertise centres (RECs) have been set up, i.e., consortiums of special schools and secondary special schools within a district. The consortiums are divided into four clusters:

• cluster 1: education for the visually handicapped (from the former schools for the blind and partially sighted);
• cluster 2: education for pupils with hearing impediments or communicative handicaps from existing schools, for deaf or hearing-impaired pupils and pupils with severe speech disorders;
• cluster 3: education for physically, mentally and multi-handicapped pupils, and chronically sick pupils;
• cluster 4: education for pupils with behavioural disorders from existing schools, for severely maladjusted children, chronically sick (psycho-somatic) children and pupils in paedological institutes.

The law on the Expertise Centres states that pupils are eligible for special education if they meet certain criteria. These are largely based on existing practice. Criteria for the visually impaired are a visual acuity: <0,3 or a visual field: < 30 and limited participation in education as a result of the visual impairment. For hearing impaired pupils a hearing loss > 80 dB (or for hard of hearing pupils 35 -80 dB) and limited participation in education are required. The decision to provide extra funding for mentally handicapped pupils will be based largely on IQ < 55, for physically impaired and chronically ill pupils medical data showing diagnosed disabilities and illness are needed. The criteria for behaviourally disturbed pupils require a diagnosis in terms of categories of the DSM-IV, problems at school, at home and in the community and a limited participation in education as a result of the behaviour problems.

The funding of special needs education has been modified in 2003. The system changed from a supply-oriented financing to a system in which the means are forwarded to the person requiring the services to more demand-oriented financing. The policy is known as the ‘back-pack’ policy: pupils take the funding with them to the school of their choice. If a student meets the criteria for this so-called 'pupil-bound budget', parents and pupils can choose a school, special or mainstream, and take part in decision making on the best way to use the funds in order to meet the student's special needs.

Post-secondary education

In adult and vocational education (bve), higher professional education (hbo) and research-oriented (university) education (wo), the contributions for accommodations are included in the central government allowance. For compulsory education, until the age of 18, no school fees are charged. For higher education or vocational education after the age of 18, tuition fees are charged. Depending on the parents' income, students can receive a grant to pay for school fees and books. Tuition fees (in hbo and wo) go from participants directly to the institutions and are not a part of the central government grant.

Legislation to ensure the inclusive nature of the education system

In the Netherlands, a number of legal and regulatory frameworks are in place to ensure the inclusive nature of the education system. These include:

Everyone has the right to be educated. The obligation to attend school is laid down in the Compulsory Education Act 1969. Every child must attend school full time from the first school day of the month following its fifth birthday. Children must attend school full time for 12 full school years and, in any event, until the end of the school year in which they turn 18.

Since 1995, the municipal authorities have been responsible for registering early school leavers under the age of 23 and coordinating regional policy on this matter. In 2001 the Regional Registration and Coordination (Early School Leavers) Bill was adopted by Parliament. This bill contains amendments to educational legislation designed to prevent and tackle early school leaving in ordinary and special secondary schools, secondary vocational education and adult general secondary education. The main aim is for all young people to complete education with a basic qualification certificate.

In August 2007, the Compulsory Education Act was amended such that besides the obligation to attend school until the age of 16, pupils now also have the obligation to obtain a basic qualification that is a certificate at havo, vwo or mbo-2 level. Youngsters between the age of 16 and 18 who have finished compulsory education but have not yet obtained such a basic qualification now are obliged to attend school, either fulltime or in combination with a part-time job. This prolongation of compulsory education has been introduced to ensure that all youngsters make a good entry into the labour market.

Recently the Primary Education Act and the Secondary Education Act were amended and an additional specification was included stating that primary and secondary education should 'stimulate active citizenship en social integration'.

Since 1 August 2006, a new weighting system for funding has taken effect for primary education in which only the parents’ level of education counts. With these weighting system schools receive extra resources and staff to be able to help pupils with potential educational disadvantages. Two weightings are used: 0.3 for pupils whose parents have no more than lbo (lower vocational training) / vbo (prevocational education) qualifications and 1.2 for pupils who have one parent with only a primary education and one parent with no more than lbo/vbo qualifications.

Since 1998, schools for children with learning and behavioural difficulties (lom) and children with moderate learning difficulties (mlk) were converted to special primary schools (SBAO). These schools fall under the legislation of primary education now.

Since 1998, vbo and mavo is transferred into vmbo. At the same time, the learning support departments (lwoo) were given a more definite shape. In 1998, ivbo was incorporated into the learning support departments. In addition, practical training programmes (pro) were initiated. With the conversion of practical training programmes and the learning support departments, special secondary education and secondary special education for children with moderate learning difficulties (vso/mlk) has been incorporated into mainstream secondary education. On 28 May 1998, an Act was implemented which required all svo/lom and svo/mlk schools either to merge with a mainstream secondary school, or to convert to a practical training institution (pro) or a special education centre (opdc).

In 1998, the law on the Expertise Centres was introduced. Regional expertise centres (RECs) have been set up, i.e., consortiums of special schools and secondary special schools within a district. The schools and therefore also the RECs are divided into four clusters:

• cluster 1: education for the visually handicapped (from the former schools for the blind and partially sighted);
• cluster 2: education for pupils with hearing impediments or communicative handicaps from existing schools, for deaf or hearing-impaired pupils and pupils with severe speech disorders;
• cluster 3: education for physically, mentally and multi-handicapped pupils;
• cluster 4: education for pupils with behavioural disorders from existing schools, for severely maladjusted children, chronically sick children and pupils in paedological institutes.

The funding of special needs education has been modified in 2003. The system changed from supply-oriented financing to a system in which the means are forwarded to the person requiring the services: demand-oriented financing. The policy is known as the ‘back-pack’ policy: pupils take the funding with them to the school of their choice (see development of integration/inclusion). If a student meets the criteria for this so-called 'pupil-bound budget', parents and pupils can choose a school, special or mainstream, and take part in decision making on the best way to use the funds in order to meet the student's special needs. This funding system has been implemented in primary, secondary and vocational education.

In 2007, the Law on equal treatment in virtue of handicap and chronically disease has been changed. Until then, the law only applied to employment, living and vocational education. In 2009, this law will be applied for primary and secondary education as well.

The Netherlands has agreed on several international agreements considering inclusive education. These include the Council Resolution integration of children and young people with disabilities into ordinary systems of education (1990), the Salamanca Statement (1994) and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006). 

Financing

Primary education

On 1 August 2006, the block grant funding system was introduced in primary education. Under this system, schools’ competent authorities receive a single block grant budget for staff and non-staff costs. They are free to decide how to spend this budget. The school budgets encompass three flows of funds: (i) the regular staff budget, (ii) funding for staff and labour market policies (the former school budget), and (iii) funding for running costs. Until 1 August 2006, staff budgets were calculated in staff units of account. School accommodations are
financed by local governments.

Figure 2: Flows of funds in primary education (Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2007)
Note: Amounts for 2007 x  € 1 billion

Weightings and cultural minorities

In primary education, pupils with a potential educational disadvantage are given a weighting based on certain criteria. Until August 2006, the following weighting system applied:

• 0.25 for Dutch pupils whose parents have a low level of education;
• 0.4 for bargees’ children;
• 0.7 for caravan dwellers’ and gypsies’ children;
• 0.9 for ethnic minority pupils whose parents have a low level of education.

On the basis of these weightings school receive extra staff and other resources. The weightings do not have a direct effect on the funding of schools. In order to qualify for extra funds under the weighting system, a school must meet a number of additional criteria, such as a minimum percentage of pupils with a weighting. No additional funds are allocated if the school fails to meet this minimum requirement.

Since 1 August 2006, a new weighting system has taken effect for primary education in which only the parents’ level of education counts. Two weightings are used:

• 0.3 for pupils whose parents have no more than lbo (lower vocational training)/vbo (prevocational education) qualifications;
• 1.2 for pupils who have one parent with only a primary education and one parent with no more than lbo/vbo qualification.

The new weighting system will be introduced in steps between 2006 and 2010. Starting in 2006, two extra pupil age groups will be counted every year according to the new system and will be included in the funding a year later.

Secondary education

A system of block grant funding applies to secondary schools. On the basis of a number of criteria they are awarded funds to cover staff and running costs, which they can spend as they see fit, provided they do so within the statutory parameters. In line with the general policy of deregulation (reducing the administrative burden) and greater autonomy (e.g. block grant funding), schools are encouraged to plan their own activities and pursue their own policies. To this end, the funding system for secondary education has been simplified. On 1 January 2006, the first step was taken toward simplifying funding of staff costs with the abolition of the age-related allowance. Funding allocations no longer take account of the average age of the school’s staff. In the same year a shift took place from school year to calendar year funding. The number of pupils enrolled on 1 October determines the amount schools receive for staff and running costs in the following calendar year. Schools now receive funding for the pupils on their rolls earlier in the year, i.e. three months after the final headcount on 1 October. School accommodations are financed by local governments.

Figure 3: Flows of funds in secondary education  (Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2007)
Note: Amounts for 2007 x  € 1 billion

Special education

In 1998 the law on the Expertise Centres was introduced. Regional expertise centres (RECs) have been set up, i.e., consortiums of special schools and secondary special schools within a district. The consortiums are divided into four clusters:

• cluster 1: education for the visually handicapped (from the former schools for the blind and partially sighted);
• cluster 2: education for pupils with hearing impediments or communicative handicaps from existing schools, for deaf or hearing-impaired pupils and pupils with severe speech disorders;
• cluster 3: education for physically, mentally and multi-handicapped pupils, and chronically sick pupils;
• cluster 4: education for pupils with behavioural disorders from existing schools, for severely maladjusted children, chronically sick (psycho-somatic) children and pupils in paedological institutes.

The funding of special needs education has been modified in 2003. The system changed from a supply-oriented financing to a system in which the means are forwarded to the person requiring the services to more demand-oriented financing. The policy is known as the ‘back-pack’ policy: pupils take the funding with them to the school of their choice. If a student meets the criteria for this so-called 'pupil-bound budget', parents and pupils can choose a school, special or mainstream, and take part in decision making on the best way to use the funds in order to meet the student's special needs.

Discussion about an alternative funding model

Finally, the way of funding can influence the development of inclusive education as well.  Meijer's study into the financing of special needs education (1999) shows a direct input funding model for special schools, in which more learners in special schools leads to more funds, leads to less inclusion, more labelling and rising costs. Pupil-bound budgeting, on the other hand, also seems to have some clear disadvantages. At times, regular schools are eager to have pupils with special needs (and their budgets), but they prefer learners (and their budgets) who are considered to be ‘easy to fit in’. The study concludes that the most attractive funding option in support of inclusive education is a strongly decentralized system where budgets for supporting learners with ‘special needs’ are delegated to local institutions (municipalities, districts, school clusters). In the Netherlands discussion is taking place on the need to replace pupil-bound budget with an alternative funding model.

Identification of children with special educational needs

In identifying special educational needs two different assessment procedures can be distinguished: one for pupils falling under the so-called Together to School Again policy (see development of integration/inclusion) and the other for pupils possibly eligible for special education placement.

Under the Together to School Again policy assessing pupils with learning difficulties and mild mental impairments is basically the responsibility of the classroom teacher. If the pupil’s special needs are difficult to meet, the teacher can be supported by the school’s special needs coordinator or by support teachers from the regional school support service. A next step would be to refer the pupil for assessment to a regionally operating assessment team. These teams, which generally comprise a psychologist, physician, social worker and experienced special needs teachers, assess pupils in order to decide on the support needed. Parents’ permission is required for such an assessment. The initiative to do this is usually taken by the regular school teacher in consultation with the school principal, school support service and parents. In general teachers refer pupils who have severe learning problems or show deviant behaviour within the classroom situation.

The law on the Expertise Centres states that pupils are eligible for special education if they meet certain criteria. These are largely based on existing practice. Criteria for the visually impaired are a visual acuity: <0,3 or a visual field: < 30 and limited participation in education as a result of the visual impairment. For hearing impaired pupils a hearing loss > 80 dB (or for hard of hearing pupils 35 -80 dB) and limited participation in education are required. The decision to provide extra funding for mentally handicapped pupils will be based largely on IQ < 55, for physically impaired and chronically ill pupils medical data showing diagnosed disabilities and illness are needed. The criteria for behaviourally disturbed pupils require a diagnosis in terms of categories of the DSM-IV, problems at school, at home and in the community and a limited participation in education as a result of the behaviour problems.

Generally the assessment consists of examining  somatic/medical aspects, cognitive development, specific developmental aspects (language development, communication, concentration, motivation, etc.), social-emotional development (behaviour, emotional stability, independence, etc.), as well as profiling the family situation, neighbourhood and/or cultural background. The emphasis in the assessment depends on the reason for referral and the pupil’s impairments. Assessment teams try to formulate the findings not only in terms of eligibility, but also in terms of educational planning.

Special needs education within the Education System

The organization, structure and management of the education system

Figure 1: The structure of the Dutch education system (Inspectorate of Education, 2007)

Pre-primary education

The Netherlands has no formal pre-primary educational provision. From the age of four onwards, children attend primary school. Although the mandatory school age is 5, almost all children (98%) begin school at age four. For children under the age of four there is no formal educational provision, but there are various childcare facilities available outside the education system.
The following organised facilities are available:

• Playgroups: these groups are open to all children aged 2 to 4 years, and are the most popular form of pre-primary provision. Children usually attend the playgroups twice a week, about 2-3 hours per visit. The main aim of the playgroups is to allow children to meet and play with other children and to stimulate their development. At the national level, no educational goals have been defined for playgroups. Most playgroups are subsidised by local government, but income-related parental contributions are often also demanded.
• Pre-schools: an increasing number of playgroups offer development stimulation programmes and have a more educational focus. These so-called 'pre-schools' are particularly intended for children from disadvantaged backgrounds (children of parents with low levels of education), with the central aim of preventing and mitigating educational deficiencies, particularly in the domain of language development.
• Day nurseries: the day nurseries cater for children aged from 6 weeks to 4 years. They are open on weekdays from around 8.00 to 18.00 hours. The main function of the day nurseries is to take care of children in order to allow parents to work. They provide daily care for children and opportunities to meet and play with other children. The responsibility for childcare facilities as a policy area has recently been transferred from the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.

Primary education

Primary education in the Netherlands comprises general primary education, special primary education and (secondary) special education. The primary education programme consists of eight years for education, from the age of four until the age of twelve. Compulsory education starts at the age of five, but children can attend primary school from the age of four. In the school year, 2007/2008 there are 7909 primary schools for 1,663,500 pupils. These include public-authority and denominational schools. Besides these, there is a small number of private schools not financed by the government. Public authority schools are open to all children, no matter what their denomination or philosophy of life may be. Public authority schools do not work on the basis of a denomination or philosophy of life. These schools are mostly run by the local authorities, a school board, a foundation or by a legal person appointed by the city council. About one third of all children go to public authority schools. Denominational schools are run as an association, of which parents can become members, or as a foundation. There are all sorts of denominational schools. Most of these schools are Roman Catholic or Protestant. In addition, there are Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and humanistic schools, and so called 'free schools' that base their education on the philosophy of Rudolf Steiner. And, there are schools that organise their education according to certain pedagogical principles, such as Montessori, Jenaplan, Dalton and Freinet schools (these can be either public-authority or denominational schools). There is also non-denominational private education, which does not depart from a special philosophy of life. About two thirds of all children go to denominational schools.

For pupils who require specialized care and support, there is special (primary) education and secondary special education. In 1998, schools for children with learning and behavioural difficulties (lom) and children with moderate learning difficulties (mlk) were converted to schools for special primary education (SBAO). These schools fall under the legislation of primary education.

Secondary education

On average, children are 12 years of age when they enter secondary education. In the school year 2007/2008 there are 645 secondary schools that cater for 941,900 pupils. Secondary education encompasses schools providing pre-university education (vwo), general secondary education (havo), pre-vocational secondary education (vmbo) and practical training (pro). Vmbo comprises four learning pathways:

• the basic vocational programme (BL);
• the middle-management vocational programme (KL);
• the combined theoretical and vocational programme (GL);
• the theoretical programme (TL).

Vmbo students can receive additional support through learning support programmes (lwoo). After vmbo, at an average age of 18, students may transfer to vocational education (mbo).
Those who have completed the theoretical programme can also choose to transfer to havo. havo is intended as preparation for higher professional education (hbo). vwo is intended to prepare students for research-oriented education (wo). In practice, however, vwo graduates also transfer to hbo. The school types differ in terms of the duration of their programmes: vmbo takes 4 years, havo 5 years and vwo 6 years.

Secondary schools have completed the implementation of two major educational innovations: the innovation of upper secondary education and the introduction of vmbo.

In the 1999/2000 school year, a new structure for the second stage of havo and vwo education was introduced. All havo and vwo schools introduced set subject combinations and the concept of independent study in the last two/three course year (years four and five for havo, and years four, five, six for vwo).

In 1998 vbo and mavo were combined into vmbo. At the same time, the learning support departments (lwoo) were given a more definite shape. In 1998 ivbo was incorporated into the learning support departments. In addition, practical training programmes (pro) were initiated. With the conversion of practical training programmes and the learning support departments, special secondary education has been incorporated into mainstream secondary education. On 28 May 1998, an Act was implemented which required all svo/lom (for children with learning and behavioural difficulties) and svo/mlk (for children with moderate learning difficulties) schools either to merge with a mainstream secondary school, or to convert to a practical training institution (pro) or a special education centre (opdc).

Vocational education (mbo)

Since 1 January 1998 all adult and vocational education institutions have been incorporated in regional training centres (ROCs). mbo comprises a vocational training programme (BOL) and a block or day release programme (BBL). There are four qualification levels:

• assistant worker (level 1)
• basic vocational training (level 2)
• professional training (level 3)
• middle management and specialized training (level 4).

The programmes last a maximum of 4 years.

Higher education

Higher education comprises higher professional education (hbo) and university education. These types of education are provided by hbo institutions and universities respectively. As of 2008, there are 41 hbo institutions and 13 universities. There is also one establishment providing open higher distance education, the Open University of the Netherlands. In addition there are number of approved private institutions and institutes for international education. The private institutions include several theological colleges, the University for Humanist Studies and Nijenrode University (business education). The international education colleges include the Institute of Social Science (ISS), International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Institute for Urban Housing and Development Studies (IHS), and the Institute for Water Education (IHE).

Higher education in the Netherlands is composed of higher professional education (hbo) and research-oriented education (wo). Since 1993, the universities of applied sciences or hbo institutions and research universities have been governed by the same legislation: the Higher Education and Research Act (WHW). This Act permits the institutions a large measure of freedom in the way they organize their teaching and other matters to meet changing demands. The universities of applied sciences are responsible for the programming
and quality of the courses they provide. Quality control is exercised by the institutions themselves and by external experts. With effect from 1 September 2003, the Education Inspectorate’s external quality assurance dossier has been transferred to the Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO). The NVAO took over two tasks of the Education Inspectorate: a) the follow-up to old style reviews previously approved by the Education Inspectorate, the so-called evaluation of administrative processing, and b) the follow-up to reviews conducted from 2003 on.

In order to be able to link up with international developments, the Bachelor’s - Master’s degree structure was introduced in the 2002/03 academic year. The Bachelor programs comprise of 180 ECTS , which amounts to three years of full-time study. The Masters programs take 1 year (60 ECTS) to 2 years (120 ECTS).

Higher professional education is extremely diverse: courses lead to some 250 different qualifications for a wide range of occupations in various areas of society. There are both broad and specialist courses. There are large hbo institutions offering a wide variety of courses in many different sectors and medium-sized and small colleges offering a small assortment in one sector only. Administrative mergers have reduced the number of hbo institutions from almost 350 in the mid-1980s to 41 in 2007. Programmes are divided into seven sectors: Education, Engineering & Technology, Healthcare, Economics, Behaviour & Society, Language & Culture, and Agriculture & the Natural Environment. The last sector falls under the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature
and Food Quality (LNV).

Special schools

Since 1998, schools for children with learning and behavioural difficulties (lom) and children with moderate learning difficulties (mlk) were converted to special primary schools (SBAO). These schools now fall under the legislation of primary education. This is related to the introduction of the law on the Expertise Centres in 1998. This law was formally effectuated in 2003. As a result of this law regional expertise centres (RECs) have been set up, i.e., consortiums of special schools and secondary special schools within a district. These consortiums are divided into four clusters:

• cluster 1: education for the visually handicapped (from the former schools for the blind and partially sighted);
• cluster 2: education for pupils with hearing impediments or communicative handicaps from existing schools, for deaf or hearing-impaired pupils and pupils with severe speech disorders;
• cluster 3: education for physically, mentally and multi-handicapped pupils, and for chronically sick children;
• cluster 4: education for pupils with behavioural disorders from existing schools, for severely maladjusted children, chronically sick children (psychosomatic) and pupils in paedological institutes.

Within secondary special schools, pupils can follow the curriculum for practical training, vmbo, havo or vwo.

In 2003 the financing mechanism (funding special schools on the basis of the number of children that are placed) has been changed in favour of linking financing of special services to the student involved, regardless of the type of schooling. If a student meets the criteria for this so-called 'pupil-bound budget', parents and pupils can choose a school, special or mainstream, and take part in decision making on the best way to use the funds in order to meet the student's special needs. Peripatetic supervision entails the provision of extra help to enable pupils with special educational needs to attend a mainstream school. The help is provided by teachers from special schools.

In the Netherlands, there is a growing continuum between separated education (special schools) and full inclusive schools. There are many mainstream schools with pupils with special educational needs in regular classes and mainstream schools with a special group for children with special needs within the school. Some mainstream school specialize in a particular target group and some mainstream schools collaborate intensively with special schools.

Teacher training - basic and specialist teacher training

Preservice training programmes

In the Netherlands, it takes four years to gain a mainstream teaching qualification. Primary school teachers study at institutions of higher education. They are trained to teach all curriculum subjects, but also a specialist subject. The initial teacher training includes an introduction to educating pupils with special needs. Current government policy requires more knowledge of educating special needs pupils within teacher training, but the programme is oversubscribed and adding special needs programmes is not easy.  Students can enter primary school colleges with a secondary school certificate (havo/vwo) or vocational diploma (mbo).  Because of concerns for disappointing results of first year teacher training students, a compulsory mathematics and language test has recently been introduced. Research showed that a large group of students in teacher education was not able to perform in mathematics at the level that is required for pupils at the end of primary education. All students at the end of the first year of the teacher-training course are now required to complete the test. Failure for the test means they cannot continue with the next year of their programme.

Another initiative related to primary teacher training is the start of an academic teaching training course. In order to motivate students with academic ambitions to enter the teaching force and to raise the academic potential of the force, initiatives have been taken to start a teacher-training course for primary school teachers on academic level. For example, the University of Utrecht offers a combined course of teacher training for primary education and educational science for vwo graduates

Though supplementary training for teachers in special education is optional, the majority of special teachers follow a two year, part time training. The course assumes the pupils are already working in education and focuses upon both theory and practice. There are several specialist fields including the visually handicapped, behaviour problems, the mentally handicapped, remedial teaching and peripatetic teaching. Although not obligatory, a growing number of mainstream teachers have a special education certificate.

As for secondary education, two forms of teaching qualification exist:

• lower secondary qualification: this so called 'grade two' qualification qualifies teachers for the first three years of havo and vwo and all years of secondary vocational education (vmbo/mbo). Courses for this level are provided at higher education institutes.
• full qualification: this 'grade one' qualification qualifies teachers for all levels of secondary education.

The grade one qualification courses are provided at higher education (hbo) institutes and at universities.  The hbo courses are available for general subjects, art subjects, technical subjects and agricultural subjects. Students specialise in one subject and the course prepares them to meet the required standards of competence (see below). At university, courses are offered for university graduates with a master's degree. Students can take a postgraduate teacher training course or begin while they are still undergraduate. Courses are available for all subjects in the secondary curriculum.

Common framework of teacher competence

The Dutch government has the constitutional duty to provide high quality education for everybody. This reasoning caused the Dutch Parliament to pass the 'Professions in Education Act' in the summer of 2004. The essence of the act (shortly called 'BIO-Act') is that educational staff - teachers, assisting staff members, school managers - must not only be qualified, but also competent. For this reason, sets of competences and its requirements have been developed for teachers, and are being developed for assisting staff members and (primary) school managers. The competence requirements for teachers are accepted by the government and be operational from august 2006. Schools are obliged to take competent staff into their employment and subsequently enable them to keep up their competences at a high level and to further improve them. Teacher training colleges use these competences as a guideline to their educational programme.

There are three versions of the competence requirements: (1) for teachers in primary education, (2) for teachers in secondary and vocational education and (3) for teachers in the last two classes of higher general secondary education (havo) and the last three classes of pre-university education (vwo). The differences between the three versions are only marginal. In fact, all Dutch teachers are required to have the same basic competences. The framework of competence requirements specifies four professional roles that teachers have (i) interpersonal role, (ii) pedagogical role, (iii) organizational role and (iv) the role of an expert in subject matter and teaching methods. The teacher fulfils these professional roles in four different types of situations, which are characteristic of a teacher’s profession: (a) working with students, (b) colleagues, (c) the school’s working environment, and (d) with him-/herself. The latter refers to his/her own personal development. The framework specifies competence requirements for each role and in each situation (see www.lerarenweb.nl/english).

Inservice training

On 30 June 2006, the Minister of OCW concluded the 'Agreement on the professionalization and support of staff in primary and secondary education with education sector employers’ and employees’ associations'. As a result of this agreement, as of 1 August 2006, primary and secondary schools receive additional resources for the
Professionalization and support of education staff. The agreement is mainly aimed at expanding the possibilities for further development for teachers and other education staff within the school. The agreement contains arrangements about maintaining competency requirements and about training and professionalization in relation to the Education Professions Act and the competency dossier. These arrangements have been further elaborated in the decentralised collective labour agreements.

Development of Inclusion

Participation and enrolment

Equality and equity are important characteristics of the Dutch educational system. Policy aims at striving for inclusion of all pupils. This is visible in the accessibility of education. Although compulsory education starts at the age of 5, most children start school at the age of 4. The participation in education of 5-14-years-olds in the Netherlands is 99 per cent. Of the 15- of 19 year olds,  86 per cent attend school. The participation in education of 20- to 29 year olds is 26 per cent. The participation in education of 30- to 39-year-olds in the Netherlands is 3 per cent (see figure 4).

Figure 4: The Dutch educational system with percentages of a cohort of pupils leaving primary education, 2006  (Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2008)

Combating poverty, social inclusion and marginalisation

Education is seen as a very important tool to combat poverty, social inclusion and marginalisation. Education is open to all pupils, emphasizes equality and provides each pupil with equal opportunities for development and participation in society, and to foster social inclusion and cohesion. To make this happen a number of policy measures are in place:

1. Compulsory education is free of charge. Schools may ask for voluntary parental contribution for extra activities (e.g. celebrations, excursions), but it may not constitute an obstacle to the admission of pupils.
2. Policies are in place to provide schools with additional resources and staff to support pupils with a potential educational disadvantage in order to improve their educational achievement and career prospects.
3. The recent policy on support for disadvantaged pupils requires municipalities to draw a local educational agenda together with school boards and childcare providers. In the local agenda school boards, local municipalities, and childcare providers discuss and decide on how best educational disadvantages can be combated and how segregation - high concentrations of either ethnic minorities or Dutch pupils in certain schools - in education can be avoided.
4. Combating early school leaving is a central policy priority. The national objective is to reduce the annual number of new early school-leavers by 50 per cent between 2002 and 2012.
5. Early detection of potential disadvantages among young children and increased enrolment of children from underprivileged backgrounds, who are at risk of educational or language disadvantage, in preschools.
6. The development of community schools is stimulated. In these schools collaborate with other social services like the police, health and welfare services, and sports and cultural institutions to enhance pupils’ opportunities for development. Dutch municipalities, who are in charge of the community schools, aim to have set up 1200 community schools by 2010.
7. To foster social inclusion and participation of pupils in society, the Primary Education Act and Secondary Education Act were recently amended with an additional specification, which oblige schools to offer education that 'stimulate active citizenship en social integration'. The Acts more specifically state that education should enable pupils to get acquainted with the various cultural backgrounds of their fellow pupils.

Access to mainstream education for pupils with special educational needs

The philosophy of inclusion is also visible in special needs education. In the last decade, there is a growing tendency to integrate more children with special needs into mainstream education. Policy aims to decrease the number of pupils with special educational needs in special schools and increase their integration in mainstream school. The emphasis is on improving the bandwidth in dealing with diversity in mainstream schools and stimulating cooperation between schools at a regional level. 

Movements of pupils from mainstream primary schools to special primary schools have fallen in recent years. In 2007, approximately 8,600 mainstream primary school pupils were referred to special primary schools. The movements from mainstream primary schools to special education and secondary special education have remained fairly constant over the past few years. The number of children being referred back from special schools to mainstream primary schools has fallen slightly in recent years. In 2007, approximately 700 pupils were referred back to mainstream education.

The number of primary school pupils attending mainstream schools with peripatetic supervision from a (secondary) special school continues to rise. In 2003, some 9,600 pupils in mainstream primary schools were receiving supervision from (secondary) special schools. By 2007, this number had increased to approximately 21,200. In addition, pupils qualifying for admission to special education and secondary special education were increasingly being admitted directly to mainstream secondary schools with peripatetic supervision from a (secondary) special school. Between 2003 and 2007, the number of pupils receiving peripatetic supervision in mainstream secondary schools increased from 4,300 to more than 14,400.

Figure 5:  Referrals to special primary education (Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2007)
Note: From BAO, SO and outside the education system (numbers x 1000)

Figure 6: Numbers receiving peripatetic supervision (Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2007)
Note: From special and secondary special education (numbers x 1000)

Quality of education

Another important issue in the Netherlands is the quality of education for all pupils, especially for pupils and students with special educational needs, irrespective of the place where education their takes place – in special schools or mainstream schools. There is increasing attention for learning outcomes, especially concerning literacy and numeracy skills. Besides the well-being of pupils, cognitive development becomes more and more important. Through different policy measures both mainstream and special schools are supported to provide all that is needed to qualify pupils with SEN as high as possible. Strengthening the accessibility (physical and curricular) of secondary, vocational and higher education is a challenge that has been taken up in the policy arena.

Adequate education for all pupils

Currently a new policy is being put into place, called Adequate education. An important aim of this policy is to improve the realisation of education for every pupil with special educational needs within the educational system. The policy arose of out the felt need and desire to improve the care for special needs students, to streamline the provisions for special needs education that each have their own funding and procedures, and to avoid that children get lost between the systems. Under this policy, every school board has the responsibility to provide adequate education for every pupil that enrols, regardless his specific educational needs and the kind of support that he needs. By cooperating with other school boards at a regional level, schools are required to arrange educational  provisions in such a way that every child can be educated taking into account the special educational needs. Schools are free to decide on how the arrangements are offered. Currently, schools in different regions schools have started with first pilots. Depending on the different outcomes and experiences within the pilots, legislation will be adapted in 2012. Some important features of this policy are:

• no child left behind: school boards have the responsibility to provide an adequate place in the educational system for every child;
• cooperation between boards of different school types, including primary education, secondary education, vocational education, and special education;
• cooperation between schools and other organisations and institutions responsible for the care and well-being of children (health organisations, youth care, etc);
• participation of all stakeholders (school board, management, teachers and parents)

Adequate qualifications

Currently different policy initiatives are being taken to enhance the possibilities for mainstream and special secondary schools to qualify pupils with special educational needs as high as possible.  The current structures for certification of special needs students are currently looked in to in order to identify problems faced by schools
and to search for possible to enhance the quality in developing adequate qualifications. The adagium being that every pupil counts and has the right to be qualified as high as possible.

Dealing with special educational needs

One of the challenges in the Dutch education context is to reduce the number of pupils with special educational needs who are referred to special schools. In 2007, approximately 8,600 mainstream primary school pupils were referred to special primary schools. The movements from mainstream primary schools to special education and secondary special education have remained fairly constant over the past few years. The number of primary school pupils attending mainstream schools with peripatetic supervision from a (secondary) special school continues to rise. In 2003, some 9,600 pupils in mainstream primary schools received supervision from (secondary) special schools. By 2007, this number had increased to approximately 21,200. In addition, pupils qualifying for admission to special education and secondary special education were increasingly being admitted directly to mainstream secondary schools with peripatetic supervision from a (secondary) special school. Between 2003 and 2007, the number of pupils receiving peripatetic supervision in mainstream secondary schools increased from 4,300 to more than 14,400.  The greatest challenge is to reduce the growth of pupils with behavioural problems who are referred to schools in cluster 4.

The current policy to integrate more learners with special educational needs in mainstream education asks for more tailor-made curricula. This requires a lot from schools and teachers (van Leeuwen, 2008). It is important to realise that schools differ in the way they design and implement the curriculum for pupils with special educational needs, the people who are involved and their tasks and responsibilities in this process. In addition, there are differences between teachers in knowledge, skills and attitude and there are differences between pupils with special educational needs as well. To strengthen the role of the teacher in enhancing the curricular and social integration of special needs students, both curriculum development, school development and teacher development should be stimulated.

Quality Indicators for SNE

Virtually all children in the age of 5-15 participate in education. With an enrolment of about 99 per cent, there is no real exclusion. Areas of concern regarding the potential exclusion of pupils from education in the Dutch educational context are the participation of children at risk of potential disadvantages in early childhood programmes, early school dropouts, and participation of special needs students in mainstream education. While almost all pupils attend school, not every pupil is integrated in a mainstream school. In the Dutch education system, special needs students can either attend mainstream education or special education. When discussing issues related to exclusion in the Dutch context, these often refer to the placement of pupils with SEN in special schools and the extent to which curricular and social integration are realised for these pupils in mainstream schools.

To inform inclusive education policies, several indicators and data are used. These include:

• the number of pupils in the age of 5-18 who are not enrolled in education;
• the number of pupils who are referred to special schools;
• the educational achievement of all pupils, in mainstream education and in special education;
• the number of pupils at risk of educational disadvantage who are not enrolled in early childhood education programmes;
• the number of early school leavers under the age of 23;
• the number of people who leave school without a basic qualification;
• the results of national and international comparative studies (PISA, PIRLS, etc.).

A distinctive feature of the Dutch education system is its centralised policy. Taking into account the provisions of the Constitution, the central government controls education through legislation and regulations. It does this directly by imposing qualitative or quantitative standards on schools and/or student progress, or indirectly through funding and other resources schools receive from the government plus the conditions schools must comply with, for example regarding the legal status of teachers.

The school inspectorate is one of the most important instruments for the government to gather and analyse quality indicators about special needs education, others are research and national assessments.

For more information about the education system in the Netherlands you can access the new Eurydice database