COMPLETE NATIONAL OVERVIEW

Legal System

The development of the education system of the Federal Republic of Germany differs from other European Countries, due to the unification of East and West Germany.

In order to bring about German unity in the area of culture, education and science, the Unification Treaty (Einigungsvertrag) concluded between the Federal Republic of Germany and the GDR on 31 August 1990 contains fundamental provisions which aim to establish a common comparable basic structure in education - particularly in the school system. In relation to special education, this presented a huge challenge as two diverse systems had to grow together.

The unification of the two German states in October 1990 brought changes to the party political scene. According to the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, known as the "Basic Law", Grundgesetz, the text of the constitution now reflects the fact that, with the accession of the GDR, Germans have regained their unity:
"to achieve in free self-determination the unity and freedom of Germany", Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland vom 23.05.1949 (BGBl. 1949,1,S. 1), zul. geänd. durch Gesetz vom 27.10.1994 (BGBl.I 1994,75,S. 3146)

As of the 3rd October 1990 the Basic Law is binding upon the whole German nation.

Development in the different Länder of Germany is diverse. Each Land has its own responsibility, including individual legislation according to the guidelines of the Basic Law, which is the framework for the education system. Responsibilities are determined by the Federal structure of government. Each Land has its own responsibility, including individual legislation following the the Basic Law. The KMK (Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Culture Affairs of the Federal Republic of Germany) has produced a framework of agreement to preserve the independence of each Land (Sovereignty of Culture "Kulturhoheit"). Educational legislation and administration of the education system are primarily the responsibility of the Länder.

The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) is the framework for the education system. The responsibilities are determined by the federal structure of government. The exercise of governmental powers and the fulfilment of governmental responsibility is incumbent upon the individual Länder as far as the Basic Law does not provide for or allow for any other arrangement. Educational legislation and administration of the education system are primarily the responsibility of the Länder. This particularly applies to the school system, higher education and the continuing education sector. Under the Basic Law and the constitutions of the Länder, the entire school system is under the supervision of the State. Schools are, as a rule, institutions of the local authorities or the Länder, and higher education institutions are institutions of the Länder. In addition, there are church-run or privately run schools and institutions of higher education.

The right of disabled children to education and training appropriate to their needs is enshrined in the Länder constitutions and more detailed provisions are set out in the educational legislation of the Länder.

The Ministries of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science in the Länder are the highest authorities responsible for education, science and culture. Their scope of responsibilities generally includes schools, higher education, libraries, adult education, arts and culture in general, relations between the state and religious or ideological communities, local history and the preservation of monuments and sites and in some Länder also sport and youth welfare.

The Ministries of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science develop policy guidelines in the fields of education, science and the arts, adopt legal provisions and administrative regulations, co-operate with the highest authorities at national and Land level and supervise the work of authorities under their responsibility and of subordinated bodies, institutions and foundations. To assist the ministries in their work the Länder have established their own research institutes for school education, higher and continuous education.

The Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs are headed by a Minister (in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg: a Senator) who is answerable to Parliament. The Minister is usually represented by a State Secretary (Staatssekretär/-sekretärin) or Director-General. In ten of the sixteen Länder, separate Ministries responsible for science and research have been established.

The Ministries of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science have their own sections, departments and groups just like any other ministries. The allocation of specific responsibilities to the various organisational units is partly attributable to local developments and partly to ideas on cultural policy. But for all their differences, the responsibilities of the Länder ministries are corresponding and their forms of organisation comparable.

In 1994, the German Basic Law (Grundgesetz) was changed and developed with the introduction of one new article: Art. 3, Abs. 3, Satz 2
"Nobody must have disadvantages due to his/her handicap."
(Niemand darf wegen seiner Behinderung benachteiligt werden).

Based on this Article in the Basic Law, in April 2001 the new Social WelfareCode IX  (SGBIX) has come in force. It summarizes the legal bases of the medical and vocational rehabilitation. It should reflect the present change of the self-image of disabled people and the basis of the policy of disabilities. The main focus is not only the welfare and the care of disabled people, but autonomous participation at the social as well as the elimination of obstacles, and equal opportunities. The law SGBIX focuses on “Rehabilitation and Access”, it has two parts:
1. Regulations for disabled and from hindrance threatened people
2. Special regulations to the participation of severely disabled people.

General educational development and the diversity of experiences in practice with regards to integration or non-segregation has led to a visible change, especially during the last years. In Germany, the period of models and experiments is going slowly to another stage. The diversity of results of these integration experiments has led to the development of the basis for legislative issues. Now it is the period where those experiences have to be realised in law. Today, nearly all Länder have changed their school laws in adapting them linked to the recommendation of the KMK, May 1994. Integration is favoured generally, possible, only in primary schools or as model-projects possible. In most of the Länder integration only is possible, if the conditions can be created (personnel, organizational, neuter resources).

For more information, please see the section entitled Development of Integration.

More detailed information regarding the recommendation of the KMK can be found at: http://www.kmk.org/schul/home.htm

The responsibility for early years education is located in the Ministry for Social Affairs. Under the Basic Law is the prerogative of the Federation to enact legislation on Child and Youth Welfare within the framework of public welfare. This also applies  to provision children in Kindergarten. The phase of early intervention is not part of the public school system.
“Disabled children should, as far as possible, attend Kindergarten and school together with non disabled peers” (Source: ‘reference work for disabled people, Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, July 2001, http://www.bma.bund.de )

For children who have reached compulsory schooling age but whose level of development does not yet allow them to cope with the challenges of primary school, Schulkindergärten have been established. In most Länder the school authorities are authorized by law to require that six-year-olds attend such institutions. Like pre-school classes for five-year-olds, these institutions have organisational links to primary schools.

Transition Period: legal provisions for vocational training are contained in the Vocational Training Act Berufsbildungsgesetz. The Vocational Training Promotion Act (Berufsbildungsförderungsgesetz) of 1981 governs the planning and statistics of vocational training as well as the terms of reference and organization of the Federal Institute  for Vocational Training (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung). According to the SGB III (Third Volume of the German Social Welfare Code) the provision of career orientation is the duty of the Office of Employment (Arbeitsamt).

Financing

The basic framework for financing and funding is the yearly education budget of the Federation, the Länder and the local authorities in Germany. The methods of financing education in detail - for example teaching aids, transport of pupils - differs from Land to Land.

The public financing arrangements for the education system are the result of decision-making processes in the political and administrative system in which the various forms of public spending on education are apportioned between Federation, Länder, and local authorities and according to education policy and objective requirements. Agencies responsible for financing are: Government, Land, districts (rural districts and municipalities with the status of a district), communes. Decisions on the financing of education are taken at  all three levels, but over 90 % of the funds are provided by the Länder and the local authorities.

Staff costs of teachers (salary and so on) are financed by the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs - in general under the administration of Education and Culture. Teachers are employees of the Länder, except in private schools. Non-teaching persons (without the qualification of a teacher), such as social workers, nurses, "Integration-helpers", support personnel, as a rule, are financed by the local authorities: the maintaining bodies (Schulträger). They are responsible for funding the material costs and the non-teaching staff payroll.

According the transport to and from school each of the Länder has its own arrangements. It is generally the responsibility of the districts and municipalities with the status of a district, and in some Länder of the communes individually, to ensure adequate provision for transporting pupils to and from the school they attend. School transport is funded by maintaining bodies (usually the local authority). In most cases subsidies are granted by the Land in question.

The maintaining bodies of private schools receive some financial support from the Länder, in various forms. All of the Länder guarantee standard financial support to schools entitled to such assistance; this includes contributions to the standard staff and running costs.

Special needs education has the same mechanism of financing as mainstream education. There is a difference for specialised teachers working in special schools and special teachers belonging to special schools, but working in mainstream schools. (The salary is the same). Some special schools are funded by the local authorities or the communes (except. support centres and schools for learning disabilities, Förderschulen). Other schools are funded by the districts (except schools intellectually disabled pupils). Supra regional working schools (except schools for blind and visually impaired, schools for deaf and hearing impaired) are, as a rule, funded by the Länder.

There have been recent developments concerning the funding of special needs education. Diverse models exist in the Länder. For the process of decision-making questions that have to be clarified focus upon:
- What kind of measures could be the best for the child?
- Which type of school is required?
- How suitable are the conditions relating to personal support/assistance, the organisation, of the school etc.?
- The performance of the child (neuter prerequisites)
- The intensity of special education required by the particular child,
- The question of additional needs, such as technical aids, transport, necessity of school attendants, questions of architectural changes for better access etc.

If there is necessity for additional funding- more than the normal education funding- in this case the maintaining school bodies and/or the ministry of social affairs with their laws of BSHG and/or KJHG share the responsibility.

According to the financing regulation of joint education of pupils with special educational needs, there has been a development in practice. At present it is mostly understood that "qualified joint education of disabled children is accepted as "Integration-help", Eingliederungshilfe, in accordance to the Federal Social Security Act (§39/§40) BSHG- Bundessozialhilfegesetz and the Law of Children and Adults Welfare, KJHG-Kinder und Jugendhilfe Gesetz."
(Source: "Die Lage der Behinderten und die Entwicklung der Rehabilitation", Dritter Bericht der Bundesregierung, Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Bonn 1994).

In some cases, there is mixed financing between KJHG and BSHG. There are also regional differences in decision-making concerning funding in the Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany.

The organisation of the decision- making concerning the allocation of the conditions and funds and the decision about the type of support for specific children, is handled differently in the Länder. In some Länder, co-ordinating committees – support committees , Förderausschuss - consult and make a proposal. This proposal is the basis for the decision by the school administration, under consideration of the particular school law and recommendations of each Land.

In some Länder, the funding system for pupils with special educational needs is in a process of changing. The focus of the modification is to move responsibility from the Land to the district and from the district to the schools so as to facilitate the process of integration. However, this process is not comparable in all of the different Länder.

As a further reference source, please go to the following:
"The education System in the Federal Republic of Germany". Information Dossier for the Education Network in the European Union. Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany. Bonn, 1996 (in co-operation with EURYDICE)

The level of early years education is not part of the public school system, and Kindergarten attendance is generally not free of charge. Institutions providing pre-school education are funded by public and non public bodies (local authorities, church, etc.) As a rule, organising bodies of both voluntary sector and public child and youth welfare services receive financial support from the Länder for the material and staffing costs of the Kindergärten. In addition, parental contributions are levied to help cover costs; this depend on parents’ financial circumstances.

Transition period: Based on legal regulations on the part of the Federation (Federal Training Assistance Act- Bundesausbildungsförderungsgesetz) pupils from grade 10 onwards at general and vocational secondary schools are entitled to financial support from the state in the  form of a grant, if they have no other means (mainly from their parents’ income) of maintenance and financing training.

Identification of Special Needs

Developing forms of learning in the primary school are contributing towards a new understanding of what is conducive to learning and of assessing pupils' performance. The focus has shifted to encouraging each individual pupil to achieve all that he or she is capable of - guided by the learning requirements for the respective school grade.

In order to do this, it is necessary to monitor the individual development and performance of each pupil as well as their working and social behaviour, on a constant basis - and assess these factors comprehensively. This is valid for pupils with special educational needs as well.

Assessment is always based on syllabus requirements and the knowledge, abilities and skills acquired in a particular class or learning group. Assessment is carried out by the teacher in charge of lessons, who is educationally responsible for his or her decision. Each pupil's performance or development is set out in a twice yearly report in the middle and at the end of the school year. The evaluation of a pupil's performance is a pedagogical process, but is also an administrative act based on legal and administrative regulations. More or less in all Länder the establishment of IEPs is compulsory – yearly or twice a year. Standardised achievement tests to assess pupils' performance or learning development in certain subjects or grades are not given at Land level.

Continuous assessment of performance for pupils with special educational needs takes place in special schools in a similar form to that of general schools. In the case of intellectually disabled or very severely disabled pupils, assessment is confined to reports on personal development.

Assessment for special educational is based on multi-disciplinary reports. Parents can make applications for assessment. If an institution makes an application, the parents have to be informed and consulted. Parents can object to a placement decision. Special education is divided into categories relating to the particular requirements of the pupils concerned and operates on the basis of special educational principles.

In Lands with corresponding laws, the education of pupils with special educational needs is more and more accepted as a common task for all types of schools. This means a changing attitude towards disabled students and their way of education. Furthermore this means in particular a changing view of educational assessment and diagnosis. Special educational needs is less institution-related or focussed than before. It centres upon individual, personal and ecological aspects of learning and the living environment.

To give the pupil appropriate support, it is not sufficient to be informed about the child's intellectual and behavioural deficits - knowledge about his or her abilities, stage of development and relation to his or her own educational and social environment is of great importance. Educational systems have to be competent in arranging special educational provision - in special schools as well as in mainstream schools. That is the reason why a profound discussion about the process of changing diagnosis criteria has taken and is still taking place in the different Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany.

The "Recommendation for Special Education in the Schools of the Federal Republic of Germany" Empfehlungen zur sonderpädagogischen Förderung in den Schulen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, passed by the KMK (1994) clarifies the necessity of overcoming traditional categories of people with handicaps, on behalf of more differentiated approaches of support and individual development. Thus qualifications and perspectives of basic developmental levels have to be involved in the "analysis of child and environment" Kind-Umfeld-Analyse. Consequently eight key-elements for identification and diagnosis of pupils and students with special educational needs have been established: motor, perception, cognition, motivation, communication, interaction, emotion and creativity.

In terms of specific content the main emphasis of diagnosis and subsequent support is upon:
-  learning capacity and behaviour, especially scholiast learning and the ability of coping with the disability in the learning process
-  speech, speaking, the communicative act, handling speech problems
-  emotional and social development, experience and self-control, dealing with disturbances  
   inexperience and behaviour
-  intellectual development, handling intellectual retardation
-  physical and motor development, dealing with severe disabilities in movement and with physical handicap
-  hearing, auditory perception, the ability to handle a hearing impairment
-  vision, eyesight, visual perception, the ability to deal with a vision impairment
-  state of health and state of mind, the ability to cope with a long term illness.

The diagnosis of special educational needs must be a precise definition of individual special needs as well as guiding the decision about the process of education and the place of support. To ensure appropriate support measures, it is necessary to get a qualitative and a quantitative profile of the pupil. Thus information from the following areas is important:
- development of learning and behavioural strategies
- perception and the process of perception
- social relationships
- communication and interaction
- individual and educational circumstances in life
- the school environment and the possibilities for change
- the vocational environment and the necessary supporting factors.

In general the criteria for identification of SEN are more or less similar for early years education and transition period. Caused by different and other levels of responsibilities, medical and psychological assessment may play a supplementary role.
 
Special Needs Education within the Education System

Mainstream System
The document attached below contains a diagram and notes outlining the different structures of mainstream educational provision in Germany.

For more information regarding the organisation of mainstream educational services in Germany, please visit the Eurydice information service at:

http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=DE&language=EN
for information in English.

Information in German is available at:
http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=DE&language=VO

Organisation of mainstream education services

Early Years Education includes all institutions run by the non-public and public youth welfare services which cater for Children from the  time they reach the age of three until they start school.  The Kindergarten is the traditional form of institutionalised early years education for thee to six year olds in Germany. Some Länder have care facilities for children between the ages of four month and six years.

Besides the Kindergarten other forms of institution and care facilities exist in this sector.
Some Länder have established pre-school classes (Vorklassen) for five-year children who have not yet reached compulsory age but whose parents wish them to achieve assistance with their preparation for primary school. Attendance is voluntary.

In case of SNE exist: Special Kindergarten (Sonderkindergarten) or Support Kindergarten (Förderkindergarten), which care for and support children with disabilities only or integrations- Kindergärten which accept disabled and non disabled children.

In the transition period  the aim for disabled pupils is to be trained in a recognized occupation under the dual system, in so far as their learning abilities allow. The school part of vocational training takes place at general vocational schools Berufsschulen or at establishments for the disabled.

If training in a recognised occupation is not possible, disabled young people receive a preparatory training geared to their individual capabilities and skills either for an occupation that will enable them to lead to an independent life or for employment in a workshop for the disabled .

Special System
The development and organisation of special education in the Länder was harmonised by several decisions adopted by the KMK, particularly by the "Recommendations on the Organisation of Special Education" (Empfehlung zur Ordnung des Sonderschulwesens; Decision of March 1972) and recommendations for all types of special schools, Sonderschulen. The current situation is documented in the "Recommendation on Special Education in the Schools of the Federal Republic of Germany" (Empfehlungen zur sonderpädagogischen Förderung in den Schulen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Decision of 6. May 1994).

Definitions of Special Needs
Since the school year 1999/2000 all Länder agreed in a joint definition of SNE. Due to the different situations and laws in the Länder, this joint definition has to be broader. Special educational needs means specific support for disabled pupils. The area of responsibility of special needs education in the Federal Republic of Germany with respect to all organisational aspects refers to the special needs within the context of disability exclusively.

Pupils experiencing problems as a result of certain handicaps and/or in need of additional educational support because of problematic situations, as well as pupils with temporary learning difficulties (e.g. slow learners, reading and writing difficulties) are supported by a combination of measures of differentiation within the structure of the general system of support.

Remedial or individual educational programmes based on the general structure, offer and give support for problem situations during the learning process. The Federal Republic of Germany has a comprehensive framework of special measures targeted to additional advice and support for all kinds of situations that might occur in daily school life.

Special education is classified with regard to pupils' special educational requirements into the following categories:
- blind
- visually impaired
- deaf
- hearing impaired
- mental disabled
- physically disabled
- pupils with learning difficulties
- students with behavioural problems
- students with impaired speech
- sick pupils

It is necessary to mention that there has been a noticeable trend: in practise, there are many problems in dealing with these categories, as a lot of disabled children cannot be clearly classified. It must be considered that there is an increasing number of multiply handicapped children. Thus the Federal Republic of Germany came to an agreement using the term "pupil with needs for special education or special educational needs relating to development" Schüler mit sonderpädagogischem Förderbedarf. The definition is explained by the recommendation of the KMK in 1994:
"Special needs education relating to development is to presume for children and adults who are disabled or who have limited possibilities for education, development and learning. Therapy and social aids from additional external school services could be necessarily included."

In this definition, the ability of each school to promote pupils' development by meeting the necessary special education tasks and requirements is an important key-element. This is the key for all didactic and methodical measures as well as the framework of conditions for each individual pupil inside school.

Forms of Special Education
Since 1975 disabled pupils have been increasingly integrated into mainstream schools by school pilot projects. In addition, various forms of co-operation between general schools and special schools have emerged and approaches to integrated teaching have been developed in educational science. A focus on the institution, has given way to a focus upon the needs of the individual.

Formerly, the prevailing concept when making choices for a child's school career (i.e. the decision in favour of a general school or a special school) was the need for education at a special school. This has since been superseded by the concept of Sonderpädagogischer Förderbedarf, special educational needs, meaning education, instruction, therapy and care requirements depending on an individual's physical disabilities and social disadvantages as far as the institutional setting allows. This development has been influenced by a new understanding of disabilities and educational needs, improved diagnostic techniques, more effective early detection and prevention as well as better overall conditions at general schools (e.g. improved pupil-teacher ratios), more open approaches to instruction and education and, finally, a greater appreciation of the benefits to children of attending a school close to their home.

Though it is not possible to dispense with Sonderschulen altogether, they should not be the only place of learning available to disabled pupils. The following forms of special education exist today alongside each other:

- Special educational support through preventive measures:
Preventive measures and interdisciplinary co-operation in early intervention are becoming more and more important. Pupils facing the threat of disability receive preventive assistance to help counteract the emergence of disability. Preventive measures include co-operative advice to teachers, parents and other professionals. Particular importance is attached to interdisciplinary co-operation in the early stages of assistance.

- Special educational support in joint education / lessons:
The possibility of education with special support in mainstream schools, as mentioned before in co-operation or with assistance and practical support of a special teacher or other professionals or in some cases social-worker. Special support is provided inside the classroom, during the class lessons or, if necessary, outside classroom teaching; part-time or full-time depending on the individual, organisational, personal or institutional situation. This form guarantees the right of a local school environment.

- Special educational support in special schools:
Children and young people whose special educational needs cannot be met within a
general school receive instruction either at special schools Sonderschulen, at vocational schools Berufsschulen with special emphasis on different types of special education or at comparable institutions. These institutions must be able to provide the required technical equipment and special teaching aids. They may turn to external organisations to obtain assistance such as therapy, care and social support. Sonderschulen vary according to the type of special education on which they focus and the educational courses they offer. They provide support to pupils in any developments which may lead to their possible transfer to a general school and to training. Multiply handicapped students attend the school with the best possibility of support according to the student's particular needs (supra-regional institutions and boarding-schools).

- Types of special schools:
Under the Hamburg Agreement between the Länder of 14th October 1971 on harmonisation in the school system, the basic school structure which applies to all Länder is such that a clear distinction is made between general schools and special schools (usually known as Sonderschulen but also called Förderschulen in some Länder). According to the Recommendations on the Organisation of Special Education (Empfehlung zur Ordnung des Sonderschulwesens, Resolution by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder dated 16 March 1972), there are ten different types of  special schools:
- schools for the blind
- schools for the deaf
- schools for the visually impaired
- schools for the hearing impaired
- schools for the mentally handicapped
- schools for the physically disabled
- schools for the sick
- schools for children with learning difficulties
- schools for children with speech defects
- schools for children with behavioural problems
- and Institutions which cannot be assigned to individual disability categories. Some special schools work as all-day schools (Ganztagsschule) others as boarding schools.

- Special educational support in co-operative forms:
Many special schools and mainstream schools are in the process of developing close pedagogical co-operation. They offer opportunities for joint activities between disabled and non-disabled pupils. The co-operative opportunities may enrich school lessons and school life for all participating institutions and people involved. The method of putting together classes of special schools and mainstream schools could be an appropriate framework of conditions to create future co-operation. In addition, this trend expands opportunities for change and transfer between school types and educational courses, increases the proportion of joint lessons and encourages the transfer of pupils from special schools to mainstream schools.

- Special education within special units:
The aim of special education units (sonderpädagogische Förderzentren), either as regional or supra regional institutions, is to meet individual special needs or a range of different needs (e.g. physical and motor development, hearing and sight, and so on) and to guarantee special education in preventive, integrative, in-patient and cooperative forms. This form of education is based as near to the home as possible and provided by specialists.

- Special educational support in frame of special pedagogical support centres (Förderzentren):
In the Federal Republic of Germany there is an increasing development of special pedagogical support centres. Several Länder use the resource of special pedagogical know-how by developing special schools into support centres and giving them an enlarged area of exercise and responsibility. These centres work as regional or supra-regional institutions with one or several key points of support.

The main task of a Förderzentrum is the further development of professionalism and institutional organisation, specifically, how to reconsider conceptions of the traditional special school in order to develop working co-operation between special and the mainstream schools.

The term Förderzentrum has different meanings depending upon the Land it is in. This is due to the Sovereignty of Culture of the German Länder. There are differences in conceptions and aims of a Förderzentrum. Referring to this, the KMK - in their recommendation about Conditions and Locality of Special Educational Support - made proposals concerning prevention measures, joint education in mainstream schools, special schools and inter-school co-operation.

In general, Förderzentren develop out of the traditional special schools. Some of them are responsible for a special district or a town (e.g. schools for learning, behaviour, speech and intellectual impairment). Others are responsible for the whole of the Land (e.g. schools for deaf and hearing impaired, for blind and vision-impaired, for physically handicapped students or students with behavioural difficulties) or even for other Länder.

Most of the Länder agree, that in the long term integration only can succeed if the Förderzentren process expands into more integrative co-operation. This could be the key for overcoming traditional relations between the special schools and mainstream schools.

- Special education in the vocational training sector and during the transition to a work environment:
Young people with special educational needs should be given the opportunity to receive vocational training in a recognised occupation requiring formal training (anerkannter Ausbildungsberuf). Where this does not appear feasible they should be enabled to take up an occupation which is specially designed for the disabled, with the aim of facilitating future permanent integration into a work environment. If this is not practicable either, the young person must be prepared for an occupation that has been adapted to his individual capabilities and skills and will enable him to lead an independent life or be prepared for employment in a workshop for the disabled.

- Infrequent special educational support in special classes:
Infrequent special educational classes are established in specific subject areas of special education and likewise for the educational support of students exhibiting temporary difficulties. These learning groups are taught, supported, and cared for by special educationalists. Some of these classes are organisationally tied to primary or secondary schools. Such classes could be, for example: classes for emotionally disturbed students, called "observation classes", Kleinklassen, Beobachtungsklassen, "classes for diagnosis and promotion", Diagnose-Förderklassen, "classes for pupils with reading and writing disabilities", Lese-Rechtschreibklassen, "Combined classes"; pupils with speech disabilities and pupils from primary school, Kombi-Klassen, "long-term-classes"; a small group of students with delays in their development have the possibility to learn the subjects of one year in one and a half or two years, Langzeitklassen.

These infrequent classes had more importance during the transitional period in the further development of special education. Today in some Länder there is a critical discussion concerning those forms of special education.

Curriculum and Teaching
Due to the existing Sovereignty of Culture of each Land, every Land has their own legislation and their own Curriculum. The material, which is important to the educational process, is laid down in syllabuses or framework plans which may be subject-related, area-related or interdisciplinary. Syllabi for all types of school are the responsibility of the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs in the Länder. They are published as regulations of the Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs.

They take the form of instructions from a higher authority and, as such, are binding teachers. At the same time, syllabuses are formulated in such a general way as to leave teachers the freedom of teaching methods in practice. The syllabuses not only deal with content, but also the course objectives and teaching methods. Nevertheless all the teachers of a specific subject or for special educational support at one school hold conferences to reach a degree of consensus on methods, special aids and assessment criteria.

At the level of special education in some Länder, a process of reflection relating to the modification of syllabi has begun. Some Länder have passed a recommendation for "Balance of Disadvantage", Nachteilsausgleich. Pupils with special educational needs, taught by general curriculum (e.g. those with sensory impairments), who don't have intellectual impairment, but difficulties because of their handicap, have a right to Nachteilsausgleich. In practice this could be for example. a reduction of exercises in a special subject or in a test, more time for working, technical aids and so on.

Apart from Sonderschulen for children with learning difficulties and the mentally handicapped, all special schools work on the basis of curricula which in terms of educational goals, lesson content and performance requirements match those of general schools (Grundschule and the educational courses offered by the Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium). However, the methods used must take into account the special learning requirements and impairments relating to individual types of disability. The volume of lessons stipulated in the timetables of general schools is supplemented by special education lessons. Some educational courses at Sonderschulen also last a year longer than those at general schools. Schools for children with learning difficulties and for the mentally handicapped work according to their own guidelines which, like all other curricula, are issued by the Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs of the relevant Land.

Sonderschulen are often all-day schools or boarding schools. Comprehensive assistance for the disabled pupil is part of the teaching concept and instruction and education complement each other.

Instruction is designed to meet individual needs and some lessons are held in small groups or on an individual basis. In addition, the class sizes at Sonderschulen are particularly small. Depending on the type of disability, therapeutic measures such as physiotherapy, behavioural therapy, speech therapy, and so on, are integrated into lessons. Technical and disability related aids and devices are used where necessary.

The 16 Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany developed at their plenary session in May 1994 the recommendations on special Needs education, replacing earlier guidelines of March 1972. This basic paper documents (reveals) the SEN development  of all German Bundesländer. The Ministers  were in agreement with the current trend to focus on the support of the individual child rather than on its deficits, on the type of school or institution.

The recommendations aim at maintaining and developing the present variety and level of special education facilities, and at encouraging efforts to educate disabled and non disabled students together. The Ministers recommended that any changes should guarantee the necessary amount and quality of special support, allow for flexibility in a system combining different degrees of special support, ensure students with SEN - as far as possible - the same possibilities and opportunities all over Germany regardless the place and nature of special support given.

Great importance should be attached a variety of provision as measures preventing disabilities, mainstreaming, and co-operation within the different systems. The traditional special school should develop themselves into support centres for prevention and integration in mainstream schools.

In the following years until 1999 the KMK enacted recommendations for the "emphasis of individual education support" (Förderschwerpunkte) on the level of:  learning, speech, emotional and social development, mental development, physical development, hearing, vision, autism, chronic sickness.

Each of these Förderschwerpunkte provides  information about the education starting point and condition on this level of SEN, the phenomenon of the individual special needs and its diagnosis, the provision of SNE and possible placements. The user gets an indication to co-operation and collaboration as well as to the qualification of the staff. With regard to the Förderschwerpunkte, all Länder are in the process of revising their Curriculum. In Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein the implementation of the IEPs (individual education plan) is regulated in the Curriculum.

Co-operation with other Services/ Networking
The most important form of co-operative arrangement within the German education system is that between the 16 different Länder. This is an important and necessary situation due to the sovereignty of each of the Länder.

The instrument for co-operation between the Land governments in education is the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (KMK). The KMK is based on an agreement between the Länder and deals with cultural policy matters of supra-regional importance, with the aim of forming a common viewpoint and a common will as well as representing common interests. Resolutions of the KMK have the status of recommendations. It is the political commitment of the competent Ministers to transform recommendations into law, until they are enacted as binding legislation by the parliaments in the 16 Länder. Most of the Länder have established educational networks around their systems of school, in a community, or Länd-wide. The aim is to ensure the best benefits for the pupil with SEN.  There is a close co-operation with social services, therapists, institutions for children’s’ development, associations etc..

In the last years, on the level of social and emotional problems, there has been established a close co-operation between education and the youth and welfare services. Main emphasis is the unification of recourses to guarantee a better benefit of the existing resources.

Alongside training within the dual system training opportunities are also available at full-time vocational schools. Pupils with appropriate school-leaving qualifications are also offered the opportunity to continue their education ( at the Fachoberschule or Fachschule). These institutions providing vocational training for the disabled usually have a large catchment area and offer student accommodation. If training in a recognised occupation requiring formal training is not possible, disabled young people receive a preparatory training geared to their individual capabilities and skills either for an occupation that will enable them to lead an independent life or for employment in a workshop for the disabled.

Alternative structures in special education
The private sector plays quite an appreciable role in special education. Churches, welfare organisations and other non-public bodies run Sonderschulen, often in conjunction with residential homes. These schools are also subject to state supervision. In their teaching methods, rehabilitation measures and child care and supervision they sometimes pursue their own special education methods.
 
 
Teacher Training

Basic Teacher Training

Training for primary school teachers takes 3.5 years at University. For lower secondary teachers, University training lasts 3.5 to 4.5 years with 2 further years practical training in school settings. For Upper secondary school teachers, training takes 4.5 years at University, then a further 2.5 years practical training in a school setting.

Teacher training of all types of school is regulated by Land legislation. Responsibility for teacher training rests with the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder which regulate training through study regulations and examination regulations. Examinations ( First and Second Staatsprüfung) are conducted by the state examination authorities or boards of the Länder.

Teacher training institutions
Teacher training is basically divided into two stages, a course of higher education and practical pedagogic training. Teacher training courses are offered at universities, Technische Hochschule/TechnischeUniversitäten, Gesamthochschulen, teacher training colleges (Pädagogische Hochschulen). Practical pedagogic training in the form of preparatory service takes place in training schools.

Admission: the basic entry for teacher training courses is the higher education entrance qualification Hochschulreife , which acquired, as a rule, after attending school for 13 years and passing the Abitur examination.

To pass in the First State Examination is the requirement for admission to the preparatory service.

Preparatory service (Vorbereitungsdienst)
For all teaching careers the Vorbereitungsdienst (preparatory service) as the second stage of teacher training, follows higher education. Depending on the Land and then type of teaching career, it varies in length (from 18 to 24 months) and places emphasis on different areas. It involves setting lessons, guided and independent teaching at training schools and studies in educational theory and subject-related didactics at seminars, which reappraise and consolidate experiences gained through practical training.

Assessment of performance and Qualifications
As with all courses of study in higher education, certain certificates are required for admission to examinations an intermediate examinations have to be taken in TT-courses. The details are regulated by the study and examination regulations (Studienordnung and Prüfungsordnung) All teaching courses conclude with the examination known as the First Staatsprüfung which entitles the holder to be accepted into the state preparatory service.

It is the task of the state examination boards, which are subordinate to ministries responsible for the school system, to hold the First State Examination. The examination usually consists of the following:
-  A dissertation in the first or second subject or in educational science;
-  A written and oral examination in the subjects studied, mainly on academic aspects of the
   subject, but possibly also on subject-related teaching methodology;
-  an examination in educational science;
-  where appropriate, a practical examination in artistic/cultural or technical subjects and sport.

The preparatory service concludes with the Second State Examination. This is the prerequisite for ultimate employment in a teaching career, but does not guarantee a teaching position. It has to be taken before a state examination board or a state examination commission and usually consists or four parts:
-  a major written paper relating to educational theory, pedagogic psychology or the didactics of 
   one of the subjects studied;
-  a practical teaching examination involving demonstration lessons in the chosen subjects;
-  an examination on the basic questions of educational theory, educational and civil service
   legislation and school administration and occasionally on sociological aspects of school
   education;
-  an examination on didactic and methodological issues in the subjects studied.

Specialist Training
Teachers of special education receive their training via a basic course of study - it is possible to study special needs education at University as part of initial training by passing the First and Second State Examination. It is basically divided into two stages: a course of higher education and practical pedagogic training - or via an additional follow-up course of study subsequent to other teacher training courses.

Under a decision reached by Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder, the standard period of study (Regelstudienzeit) for a first course of study is 9 semesters. The course includes the study of educational science and subject related studies in at least one subject or two-subject area and in special education. About half of the course is devoted to the study of special education, while on the other half is devoted to educational science and subject-related studies at an approximate ratio of 2:3. Didactic studies and teaching practice are an integral part of the course. In some Länder it is compulsory to make a course in the teaching area of integration.

Two of the following subject areas relating to special education (SE) the weighting of which can vary in the course of study and examinations, are selected: education for the blind, education for the deaf, for the mentally handicapped, ~ for the physically disabled, ~ for children with learning difficulties, ~ for the hard hearing, ~ for the visually handicapped, ~ for those with speech defects, and~ for those with behavioural problems.

In all Länder, training is divided into higher education and practical pedagogic training (preparatory service). The first period of training includes:
- a specialist component with the study of at least two subjects or subject areas, - relating to
  special education the subjects correlate with the current forms of disabilities,
- an educational science component with compulsory study of educational theory and psychology,
- teaching practice, sometimes of several weeks' duration, accompanying courses of study.

The qualification to become a special teacher can be attained either by passing the First and Second State Examinations or by embarking on an additional course of study following teacher training for a different type of teaching career which also included with a state examination. In the Länder the two forms of training exist side by side or as alternative.

For all teaching careers higher education is followed by the "preparatory service", Vorbereitungsdienst as the second stage of teacher training. Depending on the Land and the type of teaching career, it varies in length (from 18 to 24 months) and lays emphasis on different areas. It involves setting lessons, guided and independent teaching at training schools and studies in educational theory and subject-related didactic at seminars which reappraise and consolidate experience gained through practical training.

Training includes general information on disabilities, teaching methods and assessment. Practical pedagogic training after higher education at University (as the second stage of teacher training) varies in length from 18 to 24 months, depending on the Land. It involves lessons, guided and independent teaching at training schools, studies in educational theory and subject-related didactics at seminars which re-appraise and consolidate experiences gained through practical training. In some Länder, general information about integration is also included.

Specialised teachers receive a higher salary, equivalent to that of teachers working in upper secondary education.

In-Service training: (IST)
The goals of IST have been laid down by most of the Länder in their Teacher Training or educational legislation. Directives regulate other details about organisations, which provide IST, and about applications, admissions and release from teaching duties for attendance of courses. Some Länder have also formulated the fundamental aims and tasks of IST for teacher in directives or publications and not in legal provisions. The duty of teachers to undergo IST is expressly laid down in all Länder by law or ordinance, whilst it is the duty of employers (usually the Ministries of Education and Culture Affairs) to ensure that suitable training programmes are provided.

IST -like initial training- is the responsibility of the Länder. In each of the Länder the Ministry of Education and Culture Affairs is responsible for IST for teachers as it is the highest school supervisory authority and usually the employer of teachers with civil servant status.

IST - Institutions
State-run ISTT (in-service-teacher-training) is organised in the Länder at central, regional and local level. IST can also take place within schools or in the form of guided private study.

In order to organise ISTT at central locations, all Länder have established state-run IST-institutions which are subordinate to the ministries of education as dependent Länder institutions. Central IST- institutions (a specific Land can have several such institutions) have various names such as state academy or academic institute for ISTT.

ISTT at regional level is conducted differently in each Land by the institutes for ISTT and their branches and by lower-level school supervisory authorities.

Lower-level supervisory authorities Schulämter are usually responsible for the organisation of IST at local level.

ISTT within schools is carried out by schools for their own teaching staff or some members of their teaching staff.

In so far institutes are responsible for IST throughout the Land , there is no need to define areas of responsibility. Otherwise, there is usually co-ordination between the organisers of central and regional IST courses, e.g. in the form of regular meetings or conferences. IST courses are thus conducted through co-operation between the parties concerned.

IST within schools is essentially organised by individual schools, although assistance with IST preparation, executing and subsequent evaluation is available in some Länder from IST-institutions and advisers from school supervisory authorities. In some Länder the MECA is informed of the content and dates of courses held within schools and in other Länder IST-sessions within schools are offered by the central institutes of the Länder in co-operation with the school supervisory authorities.

Churches and non-public bodies also offer training courses. In some Länder these bodies must be reorganised by the school supervisory authorities. Universities and higher education institutions of equal status have set up follow-up courses (with a final examination) and supplementary and further training courses for teachers. In particular, the German Institute for Distance Studies (Detsches Institut für Fernstudien) at the University of Tübingen is developing in IST courses by distance learning.

Objectives and content of IST
IST serves to maintain and extend the professional skills of teachers, It helps teachers to meet the current requirements of their teaching career and to fulfil the educational mission of their school. Attendance at IST courses serves to deepen and extend the knowledge and skills in the fields of educational theory, psychology, didactics and subject-related studies which the teacher requires as part of his job.

The range of subjects covered by IST is extremely broad. Course content can relate to school subjects, types of school or educational and teaching methods and goals or to special problems within the classroom (e.g. in inclusive education settings), or special questions within a special disability.

In central IST in particular, many courses are aimed at head teachers, guidance teachers, teachers training probationers in the preparatory service and school Inspectorate officials. In some Länder the main target group of central IST are the subject advisors who themselves organise and hold IST courses for teaching staff. IST generally involves training sessions in the form of courses, study groups and conferences that can last half a day, a full day or several days.

Ministers of the Länder , on  KMK-level, plan to establish a working group which will have a critical look at the development of teacher training in the field of SNE.
 

Development of Integration /Inclusion

Since 1960, the situation of special education has been directed by "Expert Opinion in order (Rules) to the Special Education System" by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Federal Republic of Germany, the KMK. Within the process of discussion about special educational needs, this Conference has drawn up a consequent direction of educational development (1988). The system of special educational provision should be more flexible. It is no longer necessary to stipulate the place for special provision - the arguments are no longer "institution orientated". The way and the place of special support now depends upon categories with regard to personal conditions. In this case, the terminology of "Needs for Special School" ("Sonderschulbedürftigkeit") has changed to "Special Educational Needs " ("sonderpädagogischer Förderbedarf").

Since the 1980s disabled pupils have been increasingly integrated into general schools under school pilot projects, some of which have assumed the status of a standard type of schooling since 1990. Also, various forms of cooperation between general schools and special schools have emerged and approaches to integrated teaching have been developed in educational science.

The recent development of special education towards special educational needs is a process, which involves the whole network of education. It is a process with increasing and ever changing factors, which demands a lot of all involved parties and is more than anything a huge challenge. Of course this process is accompanied by obstacles, lack of certainty and fear. New situations and conditions, in relation to co-operation, heterogeneity, classroom management, changing demands according to assessment and diagnosis, and so on, require great care and therefore facilitation, motivation, advice and training for all involved. In the Federal Republic of Germany the process of integration has developed with different intensity and with different basic goals - however, this process in an ongoing one.

In May 1994, the KMK published a recommendation "...The education of disabled young people is in principal more and more a co-operative task of all schools. The special education should be understood as a necessary addition and key-element of providing general education." (KMK , 1994, Page 1) The Ministers noted many common elements in the variety of special needs facilities available in the 16 Länder. They considered relevant research work and the positive experience resulting from joint teaching of disabled and non disabled pupils in the same classroom.

The Ministers were in agreement with the current trend to focus on the individual pupil rather than on the type of school institution. The need for particular individual support thus enjoys priority over the eventual need to send the child or adolescent to a special school. Such individual support may be given at any regular, general or vocational school. Education of the disabled has become the task of all schools.

The Conference drew attention to the following points:
- the experiences of special educational support in special schools and in mainstream schools
- raising awareness of dealing with disabled people
- the development of early intervention
- the development of educational concepts in Kindergarten and mainstream schools with
  increased possibilities for support, especially in primary schools
- the use of new technology and technical aids
- adaptations and improvements in assessment and diagnosis
- taking more care of the neighbourhood area of the child by finding an appropriate school
- taking special care of the place of learning and the forms of special education -prevention,
  integration, special schools, co-operation)

The aim of the KMK recommendation is to create equal opportunities for people with a disability by developing a better standard of special educational support in special schools as well as in mainstream schools. Within all changes it is necessary to take account of:
- the quality and extent of special education
- flexibility of support within a system of combined and adapted aids,
- equal opportunities for pupils with special educational needs that is not reliant upon the local
  forms of support
- the individual support and development of all pupils within integrated settings (disabled and non disabled),
- the co-operation of all persons and institutions involved in this process. (KMK, 1994, p.3/4).

Teaching in integration settings with heterogeneous learning groups:
Within the increasing process of integration the conditions for learning have changed. Schools and teachers increasingly agree upon concepts of more open forms of teaching and learning. The curricula for schools explicitly grants a lot of freedom to teachers and encourages them to orientate towards the different individual development and special needs of students rather formal teaching objectives.

Consequences and changes evident in methods are for example:
- operation-orientated learning
- learning in groups of different levels
- teaching with differentiated objectives
- avoiding of marks in connection with recognition of individual process in learning
- curricula as a direction and educational freedom
- general compulsory requirements in accordance with individual requirements
- weekly schedules
- training time for consistent practice
- organising individual/group activities
- learning by doing, learning with all the senses...

In relation to curricula:
- adaptation of teaching/learning to the students' interests
- school as an area of living
- environment as a place of learning
- requirements of spelling books, calligraphy and text layout as motivation and aid or reading
- importance of curricula in relation to questions and ideas of the students...

Concerning institutions:
- strengthening the principle of a class/homeroom teacher
- ascription of teachers based on the number of pupils
- global demands cannot be fulfilled by teachers
- creation of an organisational framework which encourages the teacher to make small steps
  towards change: "reform from below"
- regional further education for teachers as a means of exchanging experiences and promoting
  joint planning
- introductory level, transition from playing to learning
- testing of remedial classes

This list of subjects will serve as a guideline for the on-going topical discussions as it focuses on the main subjects concerned with the process of movement towards integration.

The Ministers agreed that children and adolescents with SEN could be admitted to mainstream schools, provided the latter were able to offer the necessary educational support, equipment and facilities. If this was not the case and satisfactory conditions could not be offered, disabled pupils would have to be taught in special (general or vocational) schools. In any case, there is a need for very close co-operation between school and parents, among teachers, between schools and other agencies concerned, e.g. public health agencies, medical services, youth welfare services.

Quality Indicators for SNE

In general
The results out of the PISA-study were not satisfying for Germany. Consequences have to be drawn from it currently. The Ministers of the Länder agreed in particular measures:
- To fix standards for main subjects in all Länder
- To optimise the transition from Kindergarten to school
- To intensify speech-development-programmes, especially for migrant pupils
- To improve the reading ability and reading competence of German pupils.

Further general developments linked to quality improvement:
- In all Länder the autonomy of school has been increased in strength
- All schools in all Länder have developed individual school programmes – now the process of evaluation takes place
- All schools in Germany have access to information- and Communication technologies
- All German Länder have implemented the IEP obligatory, as a contribution  to ensure the quality of SNE. No extra standards will be defined, but the individual education plan is  based on the individual abilities and skills of the SEN pupil.
 
Curriculum and teaching
Due to the existing Sovereignty of Culture of each Land, every Land has their own legislation and their own Curriculum. The material, which is important to the educational process, is laid down in syllabuses or framework plans which may be subject-related, area-related or interdisciplinary. Syllabi for all types of school are the responsibility of the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs in the Länder. They are published as regulations of the Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs.

They take the form of instructions from a higher authority and, as such, are binding teachers. At the same time, syllabuses are formulated in such a general way as to leave teachers the freedom of teaching methods in practice. The syllabuses not only deal with content, but also the course objectives and teaching methods. Nevertheless all the teachers of a specific subject or for special educational support at one school hold conferences to reach a degree of consensus on methods, special aids and assessment criteria.

At the level of special education in some Länder, a process of reflection relating to the modification of syllabi has begun. Some Länder have passed a recommendation for "Balance of Disadvantage", Nachteilsausgleich. Pupils with special educational needs, taught by general curriculum (e.g. those with sensory impairments), who don't have intellectual impairment, but difficulties because of their handicap, have a right to Nachteilsausgleich. In practice this could be for example. a reduction of exercises in a special subject or in a test, more time for working, technical aids and so on.

Apart from Sonderschulen for children with learning difficulties and the mentally handicapped, all special schools work on the basis of curricula which in terms of educational goals, lesson content and performance requirements match those of general schools (Grundschule and the educational courses offered by the Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium). However, the methods used must take into account the special learning requirements and impairments relating to individual types of disability. The volume of lessons stipulated in the timetables of general schools is supplemented by special education lessons. Some educational courses at Sonderschulen also last a year longer than those at general schools. Schools for children with learning difficulties and for the mentally handicapped work according to their own guidelines which, like all other curricula, are issued by the Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs of the relevant Land.

Sonderschulen are often all-day schools or boarding schools. Comprehensive assistance for the disabled pupil is part of the teaching concept and instruction and education complement each other. Instruction is designed to meet individual needs and some lessons are held in small groups or on an individual basis. In addition, the class sizes at Sonderschulen are particularly small. Depending on the type of disability, therapeutic measures such as physiotherapy, behavioural therapy, speech therapy, and so on, are integrated into lessons. Technical and disability related aids and devices are used where necessary.

The 16 Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany developed at their plenary session in May 1994 the recommendations on special Needs education, replacing earlier guidelines of March 1972. This basic paper documents (reveals) the SEN development  of all German Bundesländer. The Ministers  were in agreement with the current trend to focus on the support of the individual child rather than on its deficits, on the type of school or institution.

The recommendations aim at maintaining and developing the present variety and level of special education facilities, and at encouraging efforts to educate disabled and non disabled students together. The Ministers recommended that any changes should guarantee the necessary amount and quality of special support, allow for flexibility in a system combining different degrees of special support, ensure students with SEN - as far as possible - the same possibilities and opportunities all over Germany regardless the place and nature of special support given.

Great importance should be attached a variety of provision as measures preventing disabilities, mainstreaming, and co-operation within the different systems. The traditional special school should develop themselves into support centres for prevention and integration in mainstream schools.

In the following years until 1999the KMK enacted recommendations for the "emphasis of individual education support" Förderschwerpunkte on the level of:  learning, speech, emotional and social development, mental development, physical development, hearing, vision, autism, chronic sickness.

Each of these Förderschwerpunkte provides  information about the education starting point and condition on this level of SEN, the phenomenon of the individual special needs and its diagnosis, the provision of SNE and possible placements. The user gets an indication to co-operation and collaboration as well as to the qualification of the staff. With regard to the Förderschwerpunkte, all Länder are in the process of revising their Curriculum. In Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein the implementation of the IEPs (individual education plan) is regulated in the Curriculum.

Promotion to the next school grade
At the end of the school year the Sonderschule examines whether the needs of the pupil can still be catered for there and in which grade he or she should be placed or, alternatively, whether the pupil should move to another special school or to a general school. The decision on which grade a pupil should be placed in is a matter for the school but it is the education authority that decides on a school transfer, following consultation with the parents and consideration of commissioned reports.

Leaving certificates
In so far as the type of disability or illness allows, Sonderschulen award qualifications equivalent to the qualifications obtained from general schools (Hauptschulabschluss, Mittlerer Schulabschluss, Allgemeine Hochschulreife), provided that instruction was based on the curricula of the respective school type and the educational course was completed successfully. The subjects may be taught over more years than at general schools. For pupils who were not taught using the curricula of general schools, such as the mentally handicapped, the teachers' council deems that an educational course has been successfully completed when the pupil has passed through all the stipulated school levels successfully.

Transition from school to work
Particular importance is attached to the integration of disabled young people into the workforce. Compulsory schooling does not end with a general education; rather, it includes vocational training or pre-vocational training. Pupils are prepared for making a decision on their choice of career at schools providing general education (in such subjects as Arbeitslehre and through visits to companies and work placements). Schools cooperate in this area with the careers guidance departments of public employment offices.

The aim is for the disabled to be trained in a recognised occupation requiring formal training (anerkannter Ausbildungsberuf) under the dual system (duales System), in so far as their learning abilities allow. The school part of vocational training takes place at general Berufsschulen or at establishments for the disabled. The first stage of training is usually completed on a full-time basis as a Berufsgrundbildungsjahr, i.e. basic vocational training year. It can be preceded by a Berufsvorbereitungsjahr, a year of pre-vocational training. Practical training takes place in companies, at inter-company training centres or in vocational training workshops for the disabled.

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