Main Routes
Generally speaking children go to kindergarten from 4 to 6, to elementary education from 6 to 12, to some type of secondary education (general or pre-vocational) from 12 to either 16 (±65%), 17 (±15%) or 18 (±15%) and accordingly to senior secondary vocational education from 16 to 20 (±55%), higher professional education form 17 to 21 (±30%) or university form 18 to 22 (±15%).

Apart from the blind, deaf, hearing impaired, severely handicapped, mentally handicapped, multiply handicapped and severely maladjusted children and youngsters who attend special schools, for this overview two groups of children and youngsters with special needs are relevant, namely children with learning difficulties and/or behavioural problems (abbreviated in Dutch into LOM) and children with learning difficulties (abbreviated in Dutch into MLK). The Dutch school system provides special elementary schools (LOM- and MLK-schools) and secondary schools for both groups (VSO-LOM and VSO-MLK), but this is changing.

Secondary education in the Netherlands is highly tracked (see attached scheme). It comprises:
- pre-university education (VWO; 6 years, age 12-18);
- senior general secondary education (HAVO; 5 years; age 12-17);
- junior general secondary education (MAVO; 4 years, age 12-16);
- pre-vocational education (VBO; 4 years, age 12-16), including an individual track (IVBO);
- special education for learning and/or behavioural problems (VSO-LOM ; 2 years, age 12-13);
- special education for learning difficulties (VSO-MLK; 4 years, age 12-16).

Changes In Secondary Education
Since 1998, secondary education in the Netherlands is in a process of change that has to be completed in august 2002. MAVO, VBO, VSO-LOM and VSO-MLK will be abolished. They will be replaced with:
- Pre Secondary Vocational Education (VMBO), which comprises 3 tracks:
- a theoretical track ("MAVO);
- a mixed track (present theoretical tracks in VBO);
- a pre-vocational track ("VBO);
- Practical training ("VSO-MLK).
For pupils in VMBO, who need extra attention, extra means are provided to arrange 'Learning support'. In practice these means are used to form separate groups of pupils that formerly used to go to IVBO or VSO-LOM.
The purpose of these changes is to enable ordinary secondary schools to provide extra help, where needed, so that pupils do not have to be referred to a special school.

Education in VMBO is meant to prepare pupils for entrance into senior secondary vocational education (MBO; 4 years, age 16 - 20). Practical training is terminal education.

Another element of change in Dutch policy concerning pupils with special needs is the Personal Budget (Special Needs) Act. This will give the parents of children with disabilities the option of choosing between an ordinary and a special school for their child. Children who require special facilities because of a sensory, physical or mental disability will be awarded a personal budget, which parents may spend in either a special or mainstream school. This budget is intended to pay for staffing and equipment costs and any adaptations that may be necessary to meet the child's needs. An individual education plan must be drawn up each year for every child with a personal budget. The child's parents must approve this plan before the school receives any funds.

Post Secondary Education
MBO provides both full-time and part-time vocational education and training in all professions and on several levels. For this overview, the two lower levels are relevant: courses on the assistant level (1 year; ISCED level 2) and short courses in MBO (2 years; ISCED level 2/3). In principle, these programmes have no threshold for entrance; they are accessible for everyone who has followed education for 10 years or more. In practice, especially the technical programmes require pre-vocational education (VBO or the prevocational track of VMBO).

Transition Programmes
All secondary education pays attention to transition. In most cases this means transition to post compulsory education, e.g. senior secondary vocational education (MBO). There, in senior secondary vocational education, attention is being paid to transition to the labour market. The amount of attention that is being paid to transition to secondary education, depends on the type of education and the schools. In Pre-vocational education (VBO), pupils have to choose vocational subjects in their third year, when they are 14. Teachers from the those schools and from the institutes for senior secondary education give information about further education (and thus about professions and working life).
Transition is an important issue in practical training.

(Un)employment
Numbers of employment and unemployment for disabled people in general are not available to me at the moment. Even for people from special education there are no figures for (un)employment. Nevertheless, I can try to draw some conclusions from the unemployment figures for educational levels. In the Netherlands unemployment has decreased significantly over the last 5 years. The percentage of unemployed has dropped from 7% in 1995 to 4% in 1998. People with higher education levels are better off than people with lower education levels. The unemployment rate for people with higher professional education is 2.2%, for people with only secondary general education it is 4.8%. The unemployment for people with only elementary school, though, is 13 percent. Of course, we cannot conclude that the situation is the same for pupils from special education, it will probably somewhere between the last two figures.

There are several provisions for handicapped people to improve their integration into the labour market. One of these provisions is a quota system for handicapped people. Its implementation is not being checked. The Social Cultural Planning Agency (SCP, 1997) concludes from research that provisions are obscure and scattered. Employers, people who work in special projects and work mediators consider laws and regulations to be more of an inhibition than an impulse to change.

There is some research on factors that influence chances on the labour market for people with little formal education. Van Beek (1993) proved that main elements in the selection of personnel for jobs that require little schooling are age, gender, health and ethnic group: employers want healthy, young, white males. More recent research (Den Boer et. al., 1998) shows that attitude towards work; motivation and solidarity with the company, physical ability, social skills, trainability are important factors for people with little formal education for attaining a job. Knowledge and practical skills are important for keeping their jobs. This is more in accordance with my own research (Den Boer, 1995) that shows that people with little formal education can improve their position on the labour market by showing employers they have initiative and are willing to work. And, of course, there is al lot of research that shows that obtaining a degree (finishing schooling and passing exams, whatever the level) is crucial for finding and keeping a job.

Literature

Boer, Paul den, J. Frietman en B. Hövels (1998). Vaardigheden met perspectief? Een onderzoek naar de vaardigheden die van belang zin voor laagopgeleiden. [Skills with perspective? An investigation into the skills that is important for people with little formal education.] OSA-Werkdocument 158. Den Haag: Staats Drukkerij en Uitgeverij (Sdu)

Boer, Peter den (1995). Scholing van laag opgeleide volwassenen. Een onderzoek naar de inrichting en effecten van scholing in het kader van de PBVE. [Training adults with little formal education. An investigation into the design and effects of training in a special training programme for people with little formal education.] Groningen: GION

SCP (1997). Rapportage gehandicapten. [Report on handicapped people.] Cahier 147. Rijswijk: SCP